A scoping review of survey questions assessing online hate speech

Vehovar, Vasja (author), Šubelj, Živa (author), Petrovčič, Andraž (author), Bartol, Jošt (author)

Hate speech refers to negative communication that targets individuals or groups based on their characteristics (e. g. ethnicity, sexual orientation). The rise of digital communication has amplified its prevalence, making online hate speech (OHS) a pressing societal challenge that requires broad research perspectives and diverse methodological approaches. Survey research is particularly valuable for exploring OHS-related experiences, perceptions, and attitudes among victims, perpetrators, and the general public. However, no comprehensive literature review has yet examined the survey instruments used in OHS research. This study addresses this gap through a scoping review of 127 studies comprising 579 survey questions. The results revealed limited use of probability sampling, underrepresentation of studies outside the Global North, strong concentration in a few national contexts, lack of platform-specific analyses, and insufficient attention to older populations. With respect to survey questions, methodological limitations were identified in relation to question types, measurement scales, wording clarity, and layout formats, as well as an overall shortage of methodological rigour. Regarding target characteristics, questions often referred to broad categories, lacking comprehensiveness and specificity. In terms of content, the open-coding process identified 11 OHS topics. These topics mostly focused on direct perceptions and experiences, while less attention was given to the underlying drivers and civic consequences of OHS. The findings underscore the need for developing standardized survey instruments. To support this aim, the OHS survey questions were additionally compiled into a consolidated database to facilitate future research.

• Language: English
• Keywords: online hate speech, questionnaire, scoping review, survey methodology, target characteristics, targeted group
• Work type: Article
• Typology: 1.02 - Review Article
• Organization: FDV - Faculty of Social Sciences
• Publication status: Published
• Publication version: Version of Record
• Year: 2026
• Number of pages: 18 str.
• Numbering: Vol. 23, article [no.] ǂ101212
• PID: 20.500.12556/RUL-185341
• UDC: 303:179.8:82-5
• ISSN on article: 2451-9588
• DOI: 10.1016/j.chbr.2026.101212
• COBISS.SI-ID: 286544643
• Publication date in RUL: 31.07.2026

Record is a part of a journal

• Title: Computers in human behavior reports
• Publisher: Elsevier
• ISSN: 2451-9588
• COBISS.SI-ID: 35083779

Licences

• License: CC BY 4.0, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
• Link: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
• Description: This is the standard Creative Commons license that gives others maximum freedom to do what they want with the work as long as they credit the author.

Secondary language

• Language: Slovenian
• Keywords: sovražni govor, Internet, družboslovne ankete