20.500.12556/RUL-171148 Assessing geometry perception of direct time-of-flight sensors for robotic safety Time-of-flight sensors have emerged as a viable solution for real-time distance sensing in robotic safety applications due to their compact size, fast response, and contactless operation. This study addresses one of the key challenges with time-of-flight sensors, focusing on how they perceive and evaluate the environment, particularly in the presence of complex geometries and reflective surfaces. Using a Universal Robots UR5e arm in a controlled indoor workspace, two different sensors were tested across eight scenarios involving objects of varying shapes, sizes, materials, and reflectivity. Quantitative metrics including the root mean square error, mean absolute error, area difference, and others were used to evaluate measurement accuracy. Results show that the sensor’s field of view and operating principle significantly affect its spatial resolution and object boundary detection, with narrower fields of view providing more precise measurements and wider fields of view demonstrating greater resilience to specular reflections. These findings offer valuable insights into selecting appropriate ToF sensors for integration into robotic safety systems, particularly in environments with reflective surfaces and complex geometries. direct ToF reflectivity robotic safety sensor evaluation metrics sensor field of view shape detection single-point ToF surface material effects time-of-flight sensor neposredni ToF odbojnost varnost robotov merila za ocenjevanje senzorjev vidno polje senzorja zaznavanje oblike enotočkovni ToF vplivi materiala površine senzor časa leta true false true Angleški jezik Slovenski jezik Članek v reviji 2025-08-11 11:06:32 2025-08-11 11:06:38 2025-08-12 03:59:04 0000-00-00 00:00:00 2025 0 0 19 str. issue 14, art. 4385 Vol. 25 Jul.-2 2025 0000-00-00 Zaloznikova Objavljeno NiDoloceno 0000-00-00 0000-00-00 0000-00-00 007.52 1424-8220 10.3390/s25144385 245338115 sensors-25-04385-v2.pdf sensors-25-04385-v2.pdf 1 BC944447F4B7E0360B150E5FE3ADDA1A 80a9719c5afcbb0ee0bb8d74923694978c58b64bf1774213165218cd440e3512 3306f6e2-7694-11f0-9328-0050569b8976 https://repozitorij.uni-lj.si/Dokument.php?lang=slv&id=214118 https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/25/14/4385 1 6ad2d207-7692-11f0-9328-0050569b8976 https://repozitorij.uni-lj.si/Dokument.php?lang=slv&id=214116 Fakulteta za elektrotehniko 0 0 0