Parkinson’s disease (PD) is chronic, progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects both motor and non-motor functions, significantly reducing quality of life. With disease progression symptoms often become less responsive to standard dopaminergic replacement treatments (Shulman et al., 2008). This reduced treatment efficacy is hypothesized to result from the deterioration of diffuse neuromodulatory networks (DNN) (N. I. Bohnen et al., 2009; Nicolaas I. Bohnen et al., 2006, 2010, 2012, 2013; Chung et al., 2010; Dubois et al., 1987; Müller & Bohnen, 2013; Peterson & Horak, 2016; Yarnall et al., 2011). Transcutaneous auricular vagal nerve stimulation (taVNS), a non-invasive technique of stimulating the auricular branch of the vagal nerve, has shown potential in activating key DNN brainstem nuclei, including the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS), locus coeruleus (LC), and raphe nuclei(Frangos et al., 2015; Peterson & Horak, 2016; Sclocco et al., 2019, 2020; Yakunina et al., 2017).
In our studies, we aimed to investigate the mechanism behind taVNS, and whether it could improve both levodopa-responsive and levodopa-resistant gait disturbances. We conducted four studies on both PD patients as well as healthy individuals, using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), functional MRI (fMRI), and wearable sensors to assess the intervention's effects.
Three key aims guided our research, namely 1) to investigate the mechanism of taVNS in healthy adults using TMS; 2 to investigate the effect of taVNS on levodopa responsive and unresponsive gait characteristics using inertial motion sensors; 3) to investigate the mechanism of taVNS in early and late PD patients using fMRI.
In the first study, we examined whether taVNS influenced GABAergic and cholinergic activity in healthy individuals by measuring intracortical inhibition using TMS. In the study 30 healthy participants underwent either taVNS at 100Hz (taVNS100) or sham earlobe stimulation (sVNS) in a double-blind crossover design. We observed that taVNS increased intracortical GABAergic inhibition (measured by short-latency intracortical inhibition, SICI), while there was no significant effect on cholinergic inhibition (measured by short-latency afferent inhibition, SAI). Interestingly, sham earlobe stimulation decreased SICI. We therefore conducted a follow-up study using passive sham stimulation without electrical current (xVNS) and concluded that the decrease of intracortical GABA-ergic inhibition was caused by anticipation of an effect and not earlobe stimulation per se.
In the second study, we explored how taVNS affects cerebello-thalamo-cortical connectivity using two different frequencies of taVNS (100 Hz and 25 Hz; taVNS100 and taVNS25, respectively). In this double-blind study, 32 participants underwent 1 session where the activity of the cerebello-thalamo-cortical pathway was assessed at baseline and during taVNS100, taVNS25 and sham stimulation. The activity of the cerebello-thalamo-cortical pathway was measured by a TMS paradigm called cerebellar brain inhibition (CBI). We found that taVNS100 significantly increased CBI, translating to increased cerebello-thalamo-cortical connectivity, while 25 Hz stimulation did not differ from the sham condition.
The third study investigated the effects of taVNS on gait and turning in 30 advanced PD patients. Using wearable motion sensors, we assessed levodopa-responsive and levodopa-nonresponsive gait parameters under three conditions: taVNS100, taVNS25, and sVNS. Our results showed that compared to sVNS, taVNS100 increased arm swing velocity, stride length, and decreased APA duration, while taVNS25 increased stride length, gait speed, and reduced double 360°turn duration. Patients with more severe motor symptoms (as measured by UPDRS-III scores) benefited the most from taVNS.
In the fourth study, we used fMRI to investigate brainstem activation and connectivity during taVNS in PD patients. During the imaging session, we found that taVNS at 100 Hz increased NTS activity in participants that had the degeneration onset site ipsilateral to the stimulation side. Additionally, taVNS decreased LC activity irrespective of the side of degeneration onset, with NTS activity significantly predictingchanges in LC activity. Functional connectivity analyses further revealed changes in specific brain regions during taVNS, including the cerebellum, transverse pontine fibers, and insular cortex, supporting its neuromodulatory effects, however no regions survived the cluster-wise correction.
Overall, our findings across all four studies highlighted the promising potential of taVNS in modulating neurophysiological and neuroimaging parameters of interest and improving symptoms in PD. In healthy individuals, taVNS enhanced cortical GABAergic activity and cerebello-thalamo-cortical connectivity. In PD patients, taVNS improved gait metrics and altered brainstem activity. The effects were frequency-dependent, with 100 Hz stimulation showing more consistent benefits. These results suggest that taVNS could serve as an adjunctive treatment for advanced PD, particularly for patients with symptoms poorly responsive to levodopa. However, further research is needed to assess the long-term effects and optimize stimulation parameters for clinical use.
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